There is no deity worshipped in Confucianism, though the worship of ancestors and of Confucius himself as a sage master and teacher are practiced. Especially the works of Liu Zhi such as Tinfng Dinl () sought to harmonise Islam with not only Confucianism but also with Taoism and is considered to be one of the crowning achievements of the Chinese Islamic culture.[133]. By 2040, 28.1% of the Chinese population will be over 60, compared to 12.4% in 2010, according to the UN. Sometimes viewed as a philosophy and sometimes as a religion, Confucianism may be understood as an all-encompassing way of thinking and living that entails ancestor reverence and a profound human-centred religiousness. In later ages, however, emphasis was often placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled. Xunzi cites "songs and laughter, weeping and lamentation rice and millet, fish and meat the wearing of ceremonial caps, embroidered robes, and patterned silks, or of fasting clothes and mourning clothes spacious rooms and secluded halls, soft mats, couches and benches" as vital parts of the fabric of li. Meanwhile, Islam promotes the unity of Muslims regardless of ethnicity or familial ties, creating an environment of extremely extroverted people. Confucianism advocates for the atomization of society through clans. He was educated in Shang-Zhou theology, which he contributed to transmit and reformulate giving centrality to self-cultivation and agency of humans,[3] and the educational power of the self-established individual in assisting others to establish themselves (the principle of irn, "loving others"). [22]:190197 Several different terms, some of which with modern origin, are used in different situations to express different facets of Confucianism, including: Three of them use r. This is because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well. What the superior man requires is just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect." Divine right no longer was an exclusive privilege of the Zhou royal house, but might be bought by anyone able to afford the elaborate ceremonies and the old and new rites required to access the authority of Tian.[80]. Although Confucius claimed that he never invented anything but was only transmitting ancient knowledge (Analects 7.1), he did produce a number of new ideas. In Zhou theology, Tian had no singular earthly progeny, but bestowed divine favour on virtuous rulers. ASARB conducted its first congregations count in 1990. [162][163] But using a broader definition, such as Frederick Streng's characterisation of religion as "a means of ultimate transformation",[164] Confucianism could be described as a "sociopolitical doctrine having religious qualities. In the late twentieth century, the Confucian work ethic has been credited with the rise of the East Asian economy. The petty person is egotistic and does not consider the consequences of his action in the overall scheme of things. Ruism, as he states, is more faithful to the original Chinese name for the school. [118] Because they believe that promotion should depend upon peer evaluations only, Bell and Wang argue against transparencyi.e. Robert Eno argues that the term has been "burdened with the ambiguities and irrelevant traditional associations". Author of. In other words, at a minimum, democracy needs Confucian meritocratic checks. "[71], According to He Guanghu, Confucianism may be identified as a continuation of the Shang-Zhou (~1600256 BCE) official religion, or the Chinese aboriginal religion which has lasted uninterrupted for three thousand years. Confucianism advocates love with distinctionsone always loves one's family first and then moves outward. [43] Rather it is similar to what Taoists meant by Dao: "the way things are" or "the regularities of the world",[40] which Stephan Feuchtwang equates with the ancient Greek concept of physis, "nature" as the generation and regenerations of things and of the moral order. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. [112] In his account, the exams select for intellect and other virtuesfor instance, the ability to argue three different viewpoints on a contentious issue may indicate a certain degree of openness. The Song dynasty Confucian Cheng Yi stated that: "To starve to death is a small matter, but to lose one's chastity is a great matter. The founder of Confucianism, named Confucius, lived from 551 to 479 B.C.E. [114] Jiang's aim is to construct a legitimacy that will go beyond what he sees as the atomistic, individualist, and utilitarian ethos of modern democracies and ground authority in something sacred and traditional. [46], Some Confucian movements worship Confucius,[49] although not as a supreme being or anything else approaching the power of tian or the dao, and/or gods from Chinese folk religion. Confucianism was not successfully spread by Confucius. Confucianism was initiated by the disciples of Confucius, developed by Mencius (c. 372-289 BCE) and inherited by later generations, undergoing constant transformations and restructuring since its establishment, but preserving the principles of humaneness and righteousness at its core. Confucius did not accept the status quo, which held that wealth and power spoke the loudest. [63] During the Ming-Qing era, prominent Confucians such as Wang Yangming promoted individuality and independent thinking as a counterweight to subservience to authority. The scholar Ronnie Littlejohn warns that tin was not to be interpreted as a personal God comparable to that of the Abrahamic faiths, in the sense of an otherworldly or transcendent creator. Partly because of the vitality of the feudal ritual system and partly because of the strength of the royal household itself, the Zhou kings were able to control their kingdom for several centuries. Sometimes "exemplary person." However, she does present education and literary power as important for women. The term Confucianism is derived from Confucius, the conventional name for Master Kong, the most revered sage of this religious tradition. [105], In Just Hierarchy, Daniel Bell and Wang Pei argue that hierarchies are inevitable. [141], For years, many modern scholars have regarded Confucianism as a sexist, patriarchal ideology that was historically damaging to Chinese women. Corrections? Confucianismincluding the most pro-authoritarian scholars such as Xunzihas always recognised the Right of revolution against tyranny. Confucianism is concerned with finding "middle ways" between yin and yang at every new configuration of the world. "Explaining the Success of the Four Little Dragons: A Survey." [44] Tin may also be compared to the Brahman of Hindu and Vedic traditions. After the An Lushan rebellion, patronage for Buddhism and its institutions fell to a new southern gentry class, formed through the massive population shift southward as people fled the war-torn north. [8][160] Confucius views about Tin and about the divine providence ruling the world, can be found above (in this page) and in Analects 6:26, 7:22, and 9:12, for example. The superior man [Junzi] cannot care about the everything, just as he cannot go to check all himself! These scholars have held that, if not for Confucianism's influence on these cultures, many of the people of the East Asia region would not have been able to modernise and industrialise as quickly as Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea and even China have done. "Political meritocracy versus ethical democracy: The Confucian political ideal revisited". [143] Some critics have also accused the prominent Song neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi for believing in the inferiority of women and that men and women need to be kept strictly separate,[146] while Sima Guang also believed that women should remain indoors and not deal with the matters of men in the outside world. Although the earliest dynasty confirmed by archaeology is the Shang dynasty (18th12th century bce), the historical period that Confucius claimed as relevant was much earlier. This did not exclude martial arts culture. First is raw efficiency, which may require centralized rule in the hands of the competent few. Confucianism. At the cultural level, for instance, Confucianism, its institutions, and its rituals offer bulwarks against atomization and individualism. Some examples include "to tame", "to mould", "to educate", "to refine". (Analects XIII, 3, tr. Muslims make up about 1.8 percent of China's population, accounting for around twenty-two million people . [50] Feuchtwang explains that the difference between Confucianism and Taoism primarily lies in the fact that the former focuses on the realisation of the starry order of Heaven in human society, while the latter on the contemplation of the Dao which spontaneously arises in nature. So, in light of Xi's call for Confucianism to benefit society in concrete ways, private . They ought to ask what makes political hierarchies just and use these criteria to decide the institutions that deserve preservation, those that require reform, and those that need radical transformation. [3] Confucianism was suppressed during the Legalist and autocratic Qin dynasty (221206BCE), but survived. RELIGION AS A PERCENTAGE OF WORLD POPULATION: 0.1 percent OVERVIEW. Shangdi was conceived as the first ancestor of the Shang royal house,[74] an alternate name for him being the "Supreme Progenitor" ( Shngji). (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 159. He proposed revitalizing the meaning of the past by advocating a ritualized life. The Master replied, "What is necessary to rectify names." "[60] Moreover, Mencius indicated that if the ruler is incompetent, he should be replaced. Competition is often used as a means to advance the status of the clan. In 17.19 Confucius says that tin spoke to him, though not in words. The RLS, conducted in 2007 and 2014, surveys more than 35,000 Americans from all 50 states about their religious affiliations, beliefs and practices, and social and political views. [122], Joseph Chan defends the compatibility of Confucianism with both liberalism and democracy. [141], Joseph A. Adler points out that "Neo-Confucian writings do not necessarily reflect either the prevailing social practices or the scholars' own attitudes and practices in regard to actual women. Baker calls respect for the family the only element common to almost all Chinese believers.[68]. A global perspective is needed to universalize its concerns. This system depended on blood ties, marriage alliances, and old covenants as well as on newly negotiated contracts. Ren is fundamental to become a junzi.[70]. 1990. [84] Confucius amended and recodified the classical books inherited from the Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties, and composed the Spring and Autumn Annals. [88] Kang modeled his ideal "Confucian Church" after European national Christian churches, as a hierarchic and centralised institution, closely bound to the state, with local church branches, devoted to the worship and the spread of the teachings of Confucius. Among the Han Chinese that are adherents to Taoist or Confucian Philosophies account for about 26% of the country's population. You will learn about the central elements of Confucian religion . It remains the social code of the Chinese and continues to influence other countries particularly Korea Japan and Vietnam. [20] In late 2015, many Confucian personalities formally established a national Confucian Church (; ; Kngshnghu) in China to unify the many Confucian congregations and civil society organisations. Confucianism holds one in contempt, either passively or actively, for failure to uphold the cardinal moral values of rn and y. [51][52], Kelly James Clark argued that Confucius himself saw Tin as an anthropomorphic god that Clark hypothetically refers to as "Heavenly Supreme Emperor", although most other scholars on Confucianism disagree with this view. Nonetheless, throughout the ages, many Confucians continued to fight against unrighteous superiors and rulers. Roger T. Ames and Henry Rosemont, Jr.. Confucius considered himself a transmitter of cultural values inherited from the Xia (c.20701600BCE), Shang (c.16001046BCE) and Western Zhou dynasties (c.1046771BCE). [128] This synthesis, blending Confucians rituals and institutions with a broader liberal democratic frame, is distinct from both Western-style liberalismwhich, for Tseng, suffers from excessive individualism and a lack of moral visionand from traditional Confucianismwhich, for Tseng, has historically suffered from rigid hierarchies and sclerotic elites. The junzi disciplines himself. The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. Based primarily on the Master's sayings, preserved in both oral and written transmissions, it captures the Confucian spirit . Correctly performed rituals move society in alignment with earthly and heavenly (astral) forces, establishing the harmony of the three realmsHeaven, Earth and humanity. In accordance with the Master, they identified mental tranquility as the state of Tian, or the One ( Y), which in each individual is the Heaven-bestowed divine power to rule one's own life and the world. In 3.12, he explains that religious rituals produce meaningful experiences,[47] and one has to offer sacrifices in person, acting in presence, otherwise "it is the same as not having sacrificed at all". [30] Individuals may realise their humanity and become one with Heaven through the contemplation of such order. as implying that even though Tian is not a "speaking person", it constantly "does" through the rhythms of nature, and communicates "how human beings ought to live and act", at least to those who have learnt to carefully listen to it. Nonetheless, it spread to other East Asian countries under the influence of Chinese literate culture and has exerted a profound influence on spiritual and political life. That Confucius admitted students of different classes as disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures that defined pre-imperial Chinese society. It is thought that his pure virtue would lead others to follow his example. At the political level, the non-democratic side of political meritocracy isfor Bell and Baimore efficient at addressing long-term questions such as climate change, in part because the meritocrats do not have to worry about the whims of public opinion. 551-479 BCE) has been portrayed as a teacher, advisor, editor, philosopher, reformer, and prophet. [152][153], Further analysis suggests, however, that women's place in Confucian society may be more complex. Li embodies the entire web of interaction between humanity, human objects, and nature. This idea is developed further in the Great Learning, and is tightly linked with the Taoist concept of wu wei (; ; w wi): the less the king does, the more gets done. Also, the Hong Kong Confucian Academy, one of the direct heirs of Kang Youwei's Confucian Church, has expanded its activities to the mainland, with the construction of statues of Confucius, Confucian hospitals, restoration of temples and other activities. The appeal to cultural values and social norms for the maintenance of interstate as well as domestic order was predicated on a shared political vision, namely, that authority lies in universal kingship, heavily invested with ethical and religious power by the mandate of heaven (tianming), and that social solidarity is achieved not by legal constraint but by ritual observance. See full answer below. Confucius includes in his discussions of li such diverse topics as learning, tea drinking, titles, mourning, and governance. Confucianism. The scholar Tu Weiming explains these classics as embodying "five visions" which underlie the development of Confucianism: Confucianism revolves around the pursuit of the unity of the individual self and the God of Heaven (Tin ), or, otherwise said, around the relationship between humanity and Heaven. Important military and political figures in modern Chinese history continued to be influenced by Confucianism, like the Muslim warlord Ma Fuxiang. [89], Other forms of revival are salvationist folk religious movements[90] groups with a specifically Confucian focus, or Confucian churches, for example the Yidan xuetang () of Beijing,[91] the Mengmutang () of Shanghai,[92] Confucian Shenism ( Rzng Shnjio) or the phoenix churches,[93] the Confucian Fellowship ( Rjio Dotn) in northern Fujian which has spread rapidly over the years after its foundation,[93] and ancestral temples of the Kong kin (the lineage of the descendants of Confucius himself) operating as Confucian-teaching churches.[92]. "Windows into China," John Parker, p. 25. [121] In fact, both Daniel Bell and Tongdong Bai hold that Confucian political meritocracy can tackle challenges that liberalism wants to tackle, but cannot by itself. Confucius himself did not propose that "might makes right", but rather that a superior should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. These are accompanied by the classical Sz (), that singles out four virtues, one of which (Y) is included among the Five Constants: There are still many other elements, such as chng (; , honesty), sh (, kindness and forgiveness), lin (, honesty and cleanness), ch (; , shame, judge and sense of right and wrong), yng (, bravery), wn (; , kind and gentle), ling (, good, kindhearted), gng (, respectful, reverent), jin (; , frugal), rng (; , modestly, self-effacing). indeed!" Confucianism would also benefit from participation in such a dialogue; according to Tu, "If the well-being of humanity is its central concern, Confucian humanism in the third epoch cannot afford to be confined to East Asian culture. [82] As the Zhou reign collapsed, traditional values were abandoned resulting in a period of perceived moral decline. On the contrary, the xiaoren (, xiorn, "small or petty person") does not grasp the value of virtues and seeks only immediate gains. This represents 0.09% of the world's population, or slightly less than 1%. [107], Bell and Wang propose two justifications for political hierarchies that do not depend on a "one person, one vote" system. Rn (, 'benevolence' or 'humaneness') is the essence of the human being which manifests as compassion. In the Dtng sh (; ) it is defined as "to form one body with all things" and "when the self and others are not separated compassion is aroused". The junzi enforces his rule over his subjects by acting virtuously himself. The intellectuals of the New Culture Movement of the early twentieth century blamed Confucianism for China's weaknesses. ), and one of representatives elected by the people. Kim said that filial piety is one-sided and blind, and if it continues, social problems will continue as government keeps forcing Confucian filial obligations onto families. Most scholars attribute the origins of this idea to futurologist Herman Kahn's World Economic Development: 1979 and Beyond. In Japan, Confucianism stands, along with Buddhism, as a major religio-philosophical teaching introduced from the larger Asian cultural arena at the dawn of civilization in Japanese history, roughly the mid-sixth century. Confucianism Though not formally recognized as a religion by the Chinese government, Confucianism has had an undeniable impact on Chinese history and culture since its conception by the Chinese philosopher Confucius around 479 BC. But to its critics the government-run body - which offers language and cultural programmes. Confucius may have initiated a cultural process known in the West as Confucianism, but he and those who followed him considered themselves part of a tradition, later identified by Chinese historians as the rujia, scholarly tradition, that had its origins two millennia previously, when the legendary sages Yao and Shun created a civilized world through moral persuasion. The story of Confucianism does not begin with Confucius. Definition. While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R. In the 16th and the 17th centuries, the earliest European arrivals in China, the Christian Jesuits, considered Confucianism to be an ethical system, not a religion, and one that was compatible with Christianity. [108] In Against Political Equality, Tongdong Bai complements this account by using a proto-Rawlsian "political difference principle". This includes one, St. [154] Moreover, some Confucian texts like the Chunqiu Fanlu have passages that suggest a more equal relationship between a husband and his wife. This line of thought would have influenced all Chinese individual and collective-political mystical theories and practices thereafter. This "cult of chastity" accordingly condemned many widows to poverty and loneliness by placing a social stigma on remarriage. Zhou kings declared that their victory over the Shang was because they were virtuous and loved their people, while the Shang were tyrants and thus were deprived of power by Tian.[3]. [48] Analects 10.11 tells that Confucius always took a small part of his food and placed it on the sacrificial bowls as an offering to his ancestors. [66], In Confucian philosophy, filial piety (, xio) is a virtue of respect for one's parents and ancestors, and of the hierarchies within society: fatherson, elderjunior and malefemale. His journey into the past was a search for roots, which he perceived as grounded in humanitys deepest needs for belonging and communicating. Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture, and it is the main concern of a large number of stories. Overall, Confucians believe that governments should place more emphasis on li and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern. Bell proposes a model wherein aspiring meritocrats take hyper-selective exams and prove themselves at the local levels of government before reaching the higher levels of government, where they hold more centralized power. The search process identified 833 publications matching the search criteria, and after the review . Besides the waning Zhou ritual system, what may be defined as "wild" ( y) traditions, or traditions "outside of the official system", developed as attempts to access the will of Tian. Li also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods. Since social harmony is of utmost importance, without the proper rectification of names, society would essentially crumble and "undertakings [would] not [be] completed. 6.1 million followers There are approximately 6.1 million followers of Confucianism worldwide. The aim of this study is to analyze the influence of Confucianism on health behaviors, health outcomes and medical decisions. (1985), p. 2, Three Fundamental Bonds and Five Constant Virtues, 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195188356.001.0001, "Asia's Rise Is Rooted in Confucian Values", "Confucianism and Ecology: Potential and Limits", "Biases and Their Sources: Qin History in the "Shiji", "Heaven, Earth, Sovereign, Ancestors, Masters: Some Remarks on the Politico-Religious in China Today", "Swastika: The Forgotten Constellation Representing the Chariot of Mithras", "The Invention of Indonesian Confucianism", "Dao, Harmony and Personhood: Towards a Confucian Ethics of Technology", "Cultural Dynamics in China: Today and in 2020", The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation, "The Confucius Connection: From Cultural Roots to Economic Growth", "Why East Asia overtook Latin America: Agrarian reform, industrialisation and development", "Daughter/Wife/Mother or Sage/Immortal/Bodhisattva? In other words, while examinations may ensure that early-career officials are competent and educated, how is it thereafter ensured that only those who rule well get promoted? [126] Baogang He and Mark Warren add that "meritocracy" should be understood as a concept describing a regime's character rather than its type, which is determined by distribution of political poweron their view, democratic institutions can be built which are meritocratic insofar as they favour competence.[127]. [15][16] Most Confucianist movements have had significant differences from the original Zhou-era teachings.[17]. The Master said, "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it.". Some of the basic Confucian ethical concepts and practices include rn, y, and l, and zh. Real power thereafter passed into the hands of feudal lords. The. Although it is an exaggeration to characterize traditional Chinese life and culture as Confucian, Confucian ethical values have for well over 2,000 years served as the source of inspiration as well as the court of appeal for human interaction between individuals, communities, and nations in the Sinitic world. Confucius and Confucianism were opposed or criticised from the start, including Laozi's philosophy and Mozi's critique, and Legalists such as Han Fei ridiculed the idea that virtue would lead people to be orderly. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Confucianism is a philosophy developed by Master Kong (known more commonly as Confucius) during China's Zhou Dynasty (1045 - 253 BC). Confucius believed that social disorder often stemmed from failure to perceive, understand, and deal with reality. [according to whom?]. Many of these Confucians suffered and sometimes died because of their conviction and action. "Can meritocracy replace democracy? In his book Confucian Perfectionism, he argues that Confucians can embrace both democracy and liberalism on instrumental grounds; that is, while liberal democracy may not be valuable for its own sake, its institutions remains valuableparticularly when combined with a broadly Confucian cultureto serve Confucian ends and inculcate Confucian virtues. . Following Dewey's account of democracy as a way of life, he points to the participatory features of his local model: citizens still get to have a democratic lifestyle, participate in political affairs, and be educated as "democratic men". Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism,[1] is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or a way of life. The Master said: "In teaching, there should be no distinction of classes.". Mao Zedong tried to suppress Confucianism, a philosophy that guided state and personal behaviour for centuries. as the embodiment of Confucian ideas. [85], Since the 2000s, there has been a growing identification of the Chinese intellectual class with Confucianism. said the share of the world's population living in autocracies had risen from . By Confuciuss time, however, the feudal ritual system had been so fundamentally undermined that the political crises also precipitated a profound sense of moral decline: the centre of symbolic control could no longer hold the kingdom, which had devolved from centuries of civil war into 14 feudal states. Examples of such xiaoren individuals may range from those who continually indulge in sensual and emotional pleasures all day to the politician who is interested merely in power and fame; neither sincerely aims for the long-term benefit of others. They searched for new doctrines to replace Confucian teachings; some of these new ideologies include the "Three Principles of the People" with the establishment of the Republic of China, and then Maoism under the People's Republic of China.
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